Stem Cells

Hi Anatomy Peeps!
As we move forward in our examination of the workings of the human body, we see not only the normal workings of the body, but malfunctions and science's attempt to fix things gone wrong. Stem cell research is one of the current and controversial methods being studied for the treatment and cure of many diseases, such as ALS, diabetes, and Parkinson's, to name a few.

The field is changing rapidly as the technology improves AND the political players shift in and out of office. Therefore, we need to do a little research before we can form an opinion on the concept and its ramifications. In preparation for this, please surf the web and compile answers to the following questions:

-What are stem cells?
-Some stem cells are unipotent, while others are multipotent or pluripotent. What do these descriptions mean?
-Why are embryonic stem cells not considered totipotent?
-What do we mean when we refer to a cell as differentiated?
-What does dedifferentiation mean?
-What does transdifferentiation mean?
-What is meant by stem cell plasticity?
-From which part of the embryo are embryonic stem cell lines derived?
-Where can stem cells be found in an adult mammal?
-What is known about the regulation of stem cells?
-What types of human disorders and diseases might be treatable using stem cells?
-What scientific obstacles still exist in the quest to develop stem-cell based therapies for human diseases?
-Why is the maintenance of a stable karyotype a critical feature for any stem cell line that will be used for therapeutic purposes?
-In what way are the ethical dilemmas associated with the use of embryonic stem cells different than those posed by the use of adult stem cells?
-Could the full range of biomedical benefits be obtained from stem cells without the destruction of embryos?
-Should donors of either eggs or adult stem cells receive financial compensation?

-How supportive of stem cell research is the government? What impact does that support have on programs conducting this research?

A good site to consider is National Institutes of Health website, www.nih.gov. They have a stem cell primer that will address many of these questions with reliable information. Don't hesitate to use other sites, but check to make sure they are reliable!

Compile all of your answers and bring them to class on Monday, at which point I will assign you a position and we will debate the pros and cons of stem cell research.

Happy Science!

Aspergillosis

Aspergillosis Cause/ Overview

It is a disease caused by a common fungus called aspergillus that is found throughout the environment. It is found growing on dead leaves, stored grain, compost piles, or in other decaying vegetation. Most people with healthy immune systems rarely get it. There are many different kinds of aspergillosis. One condition, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis ( ABPA), causes allergic respiratory symptoms, such as wheezing and coughing. Another kind, invasive aspergillosis, invades and damages tissues in the body. Apergilloma is growth of a fungus ball in the lungs. 

Symptoms

There are many different symptoms for the various types of aspergillosis

-wheezing

-coughing

-fever sometime in people with asthma

-allergic sinusitis 

-may cough up bloody mucus

-weight loss

-chest pain

-cough

-shortness of breath

-when it spreads outside the lungs it can affect almost any other organ

Invasive has additional symptoms such as

-bone pain

-blood in urine

-chills

-headaches

-vision problems

-lesions

Treatment

Invasive aspergillosis is a very serious infection, and early treatment is necessary. *Voriconazole is currently first-line treatment for invasive aspergillosis taken orally or through IV. Or other antifingal drugs such as itraconazole, lipid amphotericin formulations, caspofungin, micafungin, and posaconazole. 

Fungus ball

*Usually not treated unless surgery is needed to fix bleeding in lung tissue

ABPA

*Is treated with immunosuppressive drugs like prednisone

Extra

-Most people breathe in Aspergillus spores every day because it is so common. It is probably impossible to completely avoid breathing in some Aspergillus spores. 

-Studies have shown that invasive aspergillosis can occur during building renovation or construction.

Cites

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001326.htm

http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/dfbmd/disease_listing/aspergillosis_gi.html

Silicosis

Overview
*Silicosis is a respiratory disease that is the result of someone breathing in silica dust.

Symptoms
*Chronic cough
*Shortness of breath with exercise
If the disease is acute silicosis then there are some other symptoms as well:
*Cough
*Fever
*Severe breathing difficulty
*Weight loss

Treatment
*The main way to go about treating Silicosis is to ensure that it does not get worse.
1) Remove the source of silica exposure.
2) Limit emposure to irritants. (ex. quit smoking)
3) Treatment to help deal with Silicosis includes, cough medicine, bronchodilators and oxygen if needed.
*Bronchodilators are medications that relax the bronchial muscles. Relaxing these muscles makes the airways larger, allowing air to pass through the lungs easier.
4)People that have Silicosis are at a great risk for developing tuberculosis so routine tuberculosis skin tests would be recommended.
*If positive, anti-TB drugs would be prescribed for treatment.

Causes
1) Simple chronic silicosis - long-term exposure (more then 20 years) to low amounts of silica dust.
2) Accelerate silicosis- occurs after exposure to larger amounts of silica for a shorter time span (5-15 years). Symptoms occure faster.
*Progressice massive fibrosis can occur: caused by severe scarring and destroys normal lung structures.
3) Acute silicosis- short-term exposure to very large amounts of silica. Lungs become inflammed, can fill with fluid and causes low blood oxygen levels.
*Intense exposure to silica can cause diseas within a year but mostly the causes are longer termed exposure.

Extra Stuff
*If in contact with silica wear dust maks and do not smoke.
*If severe damage is done to the lungs it can even lead to respiratory failure.
* Although treatment can be given to help prevent the disease from getting worse and to help deal with the symptoms, Silicosis is really an incurable lung disease. Once the damage is done, it's done.
*Even after exposure to silica dust is stopped, the disease can still get progressively worse.
*Silicosis kills thousands every year.


Websites
1) http://www.thoracic.org/sections/copd/for-patients/what-kind-of-medications-are-there-for-copd/what-are-bronchodilators.html
2) https://www.google.com/health/ref/Silicosis
3) http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs238/en/

CROUP

Overview

Croup is characterized by a loud barking cough due to inflammation around the vocal cords of the larynx and trachea. Croup is found commonly in children between the ages of 6 months to 3 years. The most serious cases can need prescription medicine but most cases can be treated with home remedies. Only lasting for 2-5 days normally it can be said that croup in generally a minor condition.
Causes

1. Different viruses cause Croup, such as parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial or various other respiratory viruses.
2. It’s also been found that bacterial infections can cause croup.
3. Croup can be contracted through the air or on surfaces by infected respiratory droplets.

Symptoms

• Makes noisy, high-pitched breathing sounds when inhaling. In most cases children will breathe faster and need to sit up vertically to breathe better.
• Begins drooling or has difficulty swallowing.
• Seems agitated or extremely irritable from everyday activities
• Struggles to breathe
• Develops blue or grayish skin around the nose, mouth or fingernails
• Has a fever of 103.5 F (39.7 C) or higher

Treatment

1. In most cases, home remedies are sufficient
   a. Breathing in moist air seems to help during a croup attack. Use a humidifier or stem shower
   b. Drinking plenty of fluids
   c. Sleeping near children; monitor symptoms to soothe child
2. Getting a flu shot each year may help your child fight off some of the viruses that can lead to croup.
3. Doctor may prescribe corticosteroids, epinephrine or another medication to open the airways.
4. In server cases children may need to spend time in a hospital receiving humidified oxygen.
   

Extra Stuff

Why is croup reserved for children? As we grow older and are lungs and windpipes mature are bodies can deal with the inflammation around are vocal cords without the effects that young children suffer.

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/croup/DS00312
https://www.google.com/health/ref/Croup
http://children.webmd.com/tc/croup-topic-overview http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000959.htm

Cystic Fibrosis

OVERVIEW:

An inherited disease, cystic fibrosis causes thick, sticky mucus to build up in the digestive tract and lungs. It is a common chronic lung disease in both young adults and children, and can also result in death.


CAUSES:

Cystic fibrosis (referred to as CF) is caused by a defect in the CFTR gene. This gene makes proteins that control salt and water movement both in and out of the cells. The protein does not work correctly in those who have CF, thereby causing thick, sticky mucus and very salty sweat.

Based on the aforementioned, CF is inherited. Each person inherits two CFTR genes (one from each parent). If a person inherits two faulty CFTR genes, he will have CF. On the other hand, if a person inherits one normal and one faulty CFTR gene, he will become a "CF carrier" who can pass on the incorrect CFTR gene on to his children.

If both parents have one normal and one faulty CFTR gene, their children have the following percentages:

-25% chance of inheriting two normal CFTR genes
-50% chance of inheriting one normal and one faulty CFTR gene (thus becoming a carrier)
-25% chance of inheriting two faulty CFTR genes, resulting in CF

SYMPTOMS:

-Viscous and thick secretions of mucus in the lungs
-Numerous and repeated infections
-Recurring pneumonia
-Wheezing
-Bronchitis
-Chronic sinusitis
-Asthma
-Nasal polyps
-Weight loss or abdominall swelling
-Excessive salt in sweat
-Dehydration
-Abdominal pain
-Fatigue
-Enlarged fingertips
-Changes in color and amount of sputum
-Failure to grow (newborns)
-Bulky and greasy stools (newborns)

TREATMENT:

As Cf is a genetic, inherited disease, gene therapy would be the only way to prevent or cure it. Through gene therapy the gene could be either repaired or replaced; however, at present, gene therapy does not exist, although severl drug-based treatments are being researched. Other options include giving a person with CF an active form of the protein in which is missing or a scarcity. This is done by utilizing antibiotic therapy to clear the thick mucus from the lungs. If CF is very advanced in a person, lung transplatation may be necessary.

The treatment of a person largely depends upon where CF is affecting them (either the lungs or digestive tract.)

When CF affects the lungs, it obstructs and causes lung infections. A combination of physical therapy, excercise, and medicines are used in order to reduce or clear the mucus from the lungs. Chest therapy is an option, which consists of bronchial drainage of the mucus from the lungs. It is repeated multiple times over different areas of the chest and lungs to loosen the blockages. Excercise treatment stimulates coughing to clear the mucus and allows for the loosening of it. Medications can be used through aerosolizing or inhaling, and include bronchodilators (widens the breathing tubes), mucolytics (this mucus), and decongestations (reduces swelling of membranes). An aerosolized enzyme that thins mucus by digesting trapped cellular material has been recently approved by the FDA. Lastly, another option is antibiotics; they can be taken orally, in aerosol form, or by injection.

When CF affects the digestive tract, the disease is less serious and more easily managed. Through a balanced, high caloric (low in fat, high in protein) diet, and certain pancreatic enzymes, a person can combat this form of CF. Vitamin supplements such as vitamins A, D, E, and K are encouraged to ensure good nutrition. Enemas and mucolytic agents can also be used as treatments for this version of CF.

RANDOM FACTS:

-One in 2,500 children is born with CF
-There is no way to prevent this disease other than examining family history.

SOURCES:

- www.google.com/health/ref/Cystic+fibrosis
- www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/diseases/cf/cf_causes.html
- cystic-fibrosis-symptom.com/symptoms.htm
- cystic-fibrosis-symptom.com/treatments.htm

Pneumothorax

PNEUMOTHORAX
Pneumothorax is when air or gas collects around the lungs (in the pleural cavity). Pneumothorax is also referred to as a collapsed lung. There are three basic types of pneumothorax: Spontaneous, Tension, and Traumatic. Spontaneous Pneumothorax is an escape of air from the lungs, causing it to collapse. The tension pneumothorax is basically a severe form of the spontaneous pneumothorax and can be life-threatening. Traumatic pneumothorax occurs when the lung is punctured, thus causing the lung to collapse.

SYMPTOMS
-Chest pains (made worse by deep breathing)
-Tension in the chest
-Difficulty breathing
-Accelerated heart rate
-Skin takes a blue tint (caused by lack of oxygen)
-Low blood pressure
-Nasal (nostril) flaring. This is caused by the shortness of breath.
-Coughing

TREATMENT
If it is not too severe, the psneumothorax may disappear on it own.
If the pneumothorax is more severe, a small surgery must performed. The procedure involves a small tube that is stuck in between the lungs into the pleural cavity, and through the said tube the air is drained out of the cavity so that the lung may re-expand.
Some other patients need lung surgery. In these cases, the area which was punctured or wounded is repaired, and chemicals are used to cause scarring.


CAUSES
Pneumothoraces can occur for several reasons. Below are listed a few of the causes.
One huge (and obvious) reason is chest trauma. There are two basic types of trauma: penetrating and blunt. Penetrating is when something (kinfe, bullet, etc.) actually trespasses the thoracic cavity and enters the lung. Blunt traumatic injuries, however, are caused by a severe blow. These usually occur in motor vehicle accidents-- like when a person smashes their chest into the steering wheel.
Also, some diseases increase the chance of a person acquiring this condition. Some of those diseases include: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, cystic fibrosis, tuberculosis, or whooping cough.
Tall, thin people are more receptive to pneumothoraces.
Spontaneous pneumothoraces are thought to occur for various reasons; among those is the bleb. A bleb is a small blister on the lung that may rupture due to pressure on the lungs. These are caused by weakness in the lung tissue when a person participates in activities or is exposed to situations in which there are great changes in air pressure (scuba diving, flying, mountain climbing, etc.). It is also believed that genetics may play a role in the development of a pneumothorax.
A second type of spontaneous pneumothorax may occur (secondary spontaneous pneumothorax). This one is caused by a disease (such as tuberculosis or cystic fibrosis). Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs because the diseased lung tissue is next to the pleural cavity.
Traumatic pneumothorax is basically the result of a sharp blow to the chest, or a puncturing of the lung (with a knife, bullet, or any penetrating object for that matter).
Tension pneumothorax is the most dangerous. This one occurs when the pressure in the pleural cavity is greater than the atmospheric pressure.


http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000087.htm
https://www.google.com/health/ref/Pneumothorax
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pneumothorax/DS00943
http://www.pneumothorax.org/
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/emergencies_first_aid/54354

Bronchitis

In a nutshell:

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the air passages within the lungs. It occurs when the trachea and large and small bronchi are inflamed due to infection or other causes. The thin mucous linings for these airways can become irritated, and secrete fluids in response to the inflammation. Coughing is the natural reflex that tries to remove the fluid from the lungs.

Causes:

1. Different viruses can cause Bronchitis, such as Influenza A and B.
2. Certain bacteria can also cause Bronchitis, like Mycoplasma pneumoniae. (same bacteria that causes "walking pneumonia"
3. Irritation of the airways can also be due to fumes and dust (e.g. Cigarette Smoke)

Symptoms:

1. Coughing (may be dry or produce phlegm.) Cough may last up for more than 2 weeks. It may be severe enough to injure chest wall or cause fainting
2. Significant amounts of phlegm may mean that lower respiratory tract and lung are infected as well. You may also have Pneumonia
3. Wheezing due to inflammation of the airways. May lead to shortage of breath.

Treatment:

1. Most cases of Bronchitis are cause by viral infection, and therefore can be treated with antibiotics. However, experts are pushing for doctors to go easy on prescribing antibiotics, because they believe it will help the bacteria become immune.
2. Acetaminophen, aspirin, and ibuprofen can be taken to reduce fever and muscle aches.
3. Staying hydrated makes fluid in the lungs thinner and easier to clear.
4. Humidifiers will help lessen bronchial irritation.
5. Over-the-counter cough suppressants may be taken to alleviate coughing.

Extra Stuff:

http://www.emedicinehealth.com/slideshow_bronchitis/article_em.htm

Check out the above website. It's got a nice slide show with tons of info and visuals on Bronchitis.

website used: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/bronchitis/article_em.htm

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

SARS is a very severe case of pneumonia. caused by a virus isolated in 2003. Infection with the SARS virus results in acute respiratory distress (severe breathing diffculty) and sometimes death.

Causes:

- SARS is caused by a member of the coronavirus family (the same family that can cause the common cold).
- When someone who is infected with SARS they expell droplets into the air. If you come in contact with these droplets, you can become infected. The SARS virus may live on hands, tissues, and other surfaces for up to 6 hours in these droplets and up to 3 hours after the droplets have dried.
- Some cases were caused by airborne transmission
- Live virus had even been found in the stool of people with SARS, where it has been shown to live for up to four days. And the virus may be able to live for months or years when the temperature is below freezing.

Symptoms:

(in order of how commonly they appear)

-Fever
-Chills and shaking
-Muscle aches
-Cough
-Headache
-Less common symptoms include (also in order):
-Dizziness
-Productive cough (sputum)
-Sore throat
-Runny nose
-Nausea and vomiting
-Diarrhea

Treatment:

If they meet all of the definitions of SARS, patients should be hospitalized under isolation.
- Most common treatments:
- Antibiotics to treat bacterial causes of atypical pneumonia
- Antiviral medications
- High doses of steroids to reduce lung inflammation
- Oxygen, breathing support (mechanical ventilation), or chest physiotherapy
If the case is serious, blood serum from someone who have already recovered from SARS can be given, however, nobody knows whether that treatment works well.

Interesting Facts:

- The best form of prevention is washing your hands. If you discover that you have been diagnosed with SARS all people around you should wear surgical masks.
- There was an outbreak of SARS in 2003. 8,098 people became infected with the disease worldwide according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Of the people infected, 774 died.
- People believe that SARS originated on a farm in south China.
- SARS fatality rate is 10% and most people do recover. However, little long term information is known.


Websites Used:

http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/severe-acute-respiratory-syndrome-sars/overview.html
http://ezinearticles.com/?Facts-About-SARS&id=1435440
http://www.cdc.gov/nciDOD/sars/factsheet.htm
http://www.abc.net.au/science/features/sars/default.htm
http://www.businessgrouphealth.org/pdfs/sars_factsheet.pdf

Pleurisy

Pleurisy (PLOOR-iss-ee) is caused by swelling and irritation of the membrane that surrounds the lungs. It is usually a symptom of another illness. It is also called Pleuritic Chest Pain.


Causes
There are many causes of pleurisy.
Infections caused by virus, bacteria, fungus, tuberculosis, or parasites
mesothelioma or cancer spread from other areas
Collagen vascular disease such as lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoid disease, or scleroderma
Trauma from bruised or broken ribs
Gastrointestinal diseases including pancreatitis, peritonitis, or a collection of pus under the diaphragm
Negative reaction to drugs, for example methotrexate (Rheumatrex, Trexall) and penicillin
Other causes
Uremia
Blood clot in lung
Radiation therapy
Sickle cell disease
Chemotherapy drugs
Asbestos
HIV


Symptoms
The biggest symptom is severe chest pain that starts suddenly. The pain is often strong or stabbing when you take a deep breath. It usually subsides or disappears between breaths. It's usually felt on one side of the stomach area or lower chest. Deep breathing and coughing often make it worse. You may also have a fever, pain when moving, or fast, shallow breathing. Typically, you will be able to point to the exact location of the pain. In some people, the pain spreads to the neck, shoulder, or abdomen.


Treatment
While the doctor looks for the cause, you will get medicine to ease the pain and help you breathe easier. Pleurisy is frequently diagnosed only when other more serious causes have been ruled out.
When you have been diagnosed with pleurisy and more serious causes of chest pain have been ruled out, you will probably get a prescription for pain medicine.
You may be prescribed an anti-inflammatory drug such as ibuprofen (Motrin), indomethacin (Indocin), or naproxen (Naprosyn). You may even receive stronger medicine, such as codeine, hydrocodone (Vicodin), or oxycodone (Percocet).
If you have a lot of fluid in your chest, it may need to be drained.


Interesting facts
Sometimes a cause cannot be found. Doctors call this ideopathic (id-e-o-PATH-ik) pleurisy. Even though the cause isn't known, the problem can still be treated.


Sources
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001371.htm
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/pleurisy/article_em.htm
http://www.healthsquare.com/ndfiles/nd0405.htm

Asbestosis

Asbestosis

Asbestosis is a breathing disorder in which the accumulation of asbestos fibers in the lungs cause the lung tissue to scar. The scarred lung tissue cannot perform gas exchange and expand and contract normally.

Asbestos is a natural mineral product that is resistant to heat and corrosion. It can be found in products such as

• insulation
• fire-retardant materials
• cement
• some vinyl flooring
  

Most cases of asbestosis were acquired on job cites involving these materials in the mid-70's. Now it is very rare to be diagnosed with asbestosis after the federal government began to regulate the use of asbestos products.

Symptoms of asbestosis start similar to symptoms of other breathing disorders such as asthma, however they develop differently, over years and months. Symptoms include

• Chest pain
• shortness of breath
• tightness of chest
• cough

Other possible symptoms

• Nail abnormalities
• clubbing of fingers
  

To detect asbestosis a doctor will listen to the chest with a stethoscope and hear a crackling sound. Then the doctor with follow through with

• CT scan of the lungs
• Chest x-ray
• Pulmonary function tests
• Gallium lung scan
  

There are no curative treatments of asbestosis. The scarring of the tissue of the lungs is irreversible. In rare cases sometimes a lung is removed if it is decided that the lung can no longer serve its purpose. Patients are focused on symptomatic relief instead through palliative treatments. Oxygen is often administered to asbestosis sufferers to comp the feeling of being out of breath. This is done because the scarred tissue decreases the victims total lung capacity. Another treatment is postural drainage. The excessive lung scarring stops a buildup of mucous secretions that also negatively affect lung capacity. In postural drainage the use of different body positions to manipulate gravity to assist in removing the lung secretions. Asbestosis patients are also treated with drugs that can thin out the built up secretions.

Interesting Facts:

• The reason asbestos is so dangerous for us to be around in because its particles are extremely long and thin, so they can get past the filtration systems of the respiratory system in the nose and the passages in the lungs and move directly to the alveoli.
• In most cases, symptoms of asbestosis will not occur until 20 years or more after the exposure to the asbestos.
• Other serious asbestos related diseases are pleural plaques, pleural effusion and malignant mesothelioma.

https://www.google.com/health/ref/Asbestosis

http://www.allaboutmalignantmesothelioma.com/asbestosis-treatments.htm

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000118.htm

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/asbestosis/DS00482/DSECTION=symptoms

Pulmonary Edema

Pulmonary Edema


Definition: Pulmonary Edema is a condition that is caused by excess fluid in the lungs. The fluid collects in the alveoli instead of air, preventing oxygen from being absorbed into your bloodstream and making it hard to breathe.


Causes:
The causes of Pulmonary Edema are :

(in most cases) heart problems

• pneumonia
• exposure to certain toxins and medications
• exercising or living at high elevations
  

Cardiac Pulmonary Edema - Occurs when the diseased or overworked left ventricle of the heart isn't able to pump out enough of the blood it receives from your lungs. It also occurs when the right ventricle is unable to overcome increased pressure in the pulmonary artery.

factors of Cardiac Pulmonary Edema:

• Coronary artery disease
• Cardiomyopathy
• Heart valve problems
• High blood pressure

Non Cardiac Pulmonary Edema - Fluid may leak from the capillaries in your lungs' air sacs because the capillaries themselves become more permeable or leaky.

factors of Non Cardiac Pulmonary Edema:

• Lung infections
• Exposure to certain toxins
• Kidney disease
• Smoke inhalation
• Adverse drug reaction
• Acute respiratory distress syndrome
• High altitudes

Symptoms:
(most common) :

• Extreme shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
• A feeling of suffocating or drowning
• Wheezing or gasping for breath
• Anxiety, restlessness or a sense of apprehension
• A cough that produces frothy sputum that may be tinged with blood
• Excessive sweating
• Pale skin
• A rapid, irregular heartbeat (palpitations)
• coughing up blood or bloody froth
• inability to speak in full sentences
• nasal flaring
  

(if caused by heart failure) :

• Having more shortness of breath than normal when you're physically active.
• Difficulty breathing with exertion, often when you're lying flat as opposed to sitting up.
• Awakening at night with a breathless feeling that may be relieved by sitting up.
• Rapid weight gain
• Loss of appetite.
• Fatigue.

(caused by high-altitude) :

• Headache
• Insomnia
• Fluid retention
• Cough
• Shortness of breath

** Pulmonary Edema that comes on suddenly is life threatening. If any of the symptoms below are present, see a doctor.

• Trouble breathing or a feeling of suffocating (dyspnea)
• A bubbly, wheezing or gasping sound when you breathe
• Pink, frothy sputum when you cough
• Breathing difficulty along with profuse sweating
• A blue or gray tone to your skin
• A severe drop in blood pressure

Treatments:

• receive oxygen through a face mask or nasal cannula (a flexible plastic tube with two openings that deliver oxygen to each nostril)
• Preload reducers (nitroglycerin and diuretics, such as furosemide (Lasix) )
• Morphine (Astramorph, Roxanol)
• Afterload reducers (nitroprusside (Nitropress), enalapril (Vasotec) and captopril (Capoten))
• Blood pressure medications

Treating high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE):

• descend a few thousand feet (about 600 to 900 meters)
• prescription medication acetazolamide (Diamox)
• oxygen

Interesting Facts:

• Some patients may need to use a breathing machine long term, which may lead to damage of lung tissue
• Also known as lung congestion, lung water, and pulmonary congestion
• Pulmonary Edema is most noticeable while lying down

Websites:

1. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pulmonary-edema/DS00412
2. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pulmonary-edema/DS00412/DSECTION=symptoms
3. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pulmonary-edema/DS00412/DSECTION=causes
4. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pulmonary-edema/DS00412/DSECTION=treatments-and-drugs
5. http://www.drugs.com/enc/pulmonary-edema.html

Psittacosis

Psittacosis

Causes:

Psittacosis refers to any infection or disease cause by Chlamydia psittaci, which is a bacterium from the Chlamydia genus. This disease can be transmitted from infected birds (usually domesticated birds) to humans by breathing in Chlamydia psittaci through aerosolized urine, respiratory secretion, or dried feces of infected birds. A bite from an infected bird or handling the plumage and tissues of infected birds can also cause psittacosis. A person-to-person transmission of psittacosis is very rare. The disease may be spread when a person is exposed to aerosolized droplets of Chlamydia psittaci due to sudden, forceful coughing of an infected individual. However the disease is quite rare and only about 100 to 200 cases are reported in the United States each year.

Symptoms:

The symptoms of psittacosis in humans resemble those of a severe ‘flu’ but particular signs include the following:

-Fever
-Chills
-Headache
-Shivering
-Muscle aches (mostly concentrated in the neck and back)
-Dry cough
-Productive cough (later stages)
-Cough containing pus
-Pus in sputum ( sputum is phlegm/mucus from respiratory system)
-Loss of appetite
-Weight loss
-Breathlessness
-Pneumonia
-Nausea/ Vomiting

The symptoms of psittacosis in birds can be less clearly defined and confused with other disease symptoms. The symptoms of birds encompass the following:

-Eye discharge or swelling
-Labored breathing
-Diarrhea
-Poor appetite
-“Ruffled up” appearance
-Weakness
-Shivering

Treatment:

Psittacosis is treated with antibiotics. These antibiotics consist of:

-Doxycycline
-Azithromycin
-Erythomycin
-Rifampin
-Tetracycline

The patients are generally treated for two to three weeks to prevent a relapse of infection. Doxycycline is usually the antibiotic of choice and erythromycin is used in children younger than nine years of age and in pregnant women. Other than antibiotics there is really no other treatment for psittacosis in humans.

Interesting Facts:

-If untreated the mortality rate of psittacosis can run as high as 30% in humans.
-Psittacosis is also known as parrot disease, parrot fever, and ornithosis.
-In about every 100 cases there will be one fatality in humans.
-The name psittacosis comes from the Greek word “psittakos” meaning parrot.
-The psittacosis bacteria have been isolated in more than 175 species of birds.

Websites used:

http://www.theparrotsocietyuk.org/index.php/Psittacosis/54
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/diseases/psittacosis.html
http://www.birdsnways.com/articles/psittico.htm
http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/psittacosis/overview.html
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/227025-treatment
http://www.health.state.ny.us/diseases/communicable/psittacosis/fact_sheet.htm
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/psittacosis.aspx
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol3no2/jorgen.htm
http://www.kingcounty.gov/healthservices/health/communicable/diseases/psittacosis.aspx

Pertussis

Pertussis, further known as the “whooping cough” is an infection of the respiratory system caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis (or B. pertussis). It is a highly contagious bacterial disease that causes an uncontrollable cough. When a person with pertussis tries to take a breath, a deep “whooping” sound is often heard. This coughing caused by the disease makes it hard to breathe.
Symptoms of Pertussis include a runny nose, a slight fever (102 or lower), severe, repeated coughs that: make breathing difficult, result in vomiting, produce a high-pitched “whopping” sound when a person takes a breath, and may cause a short loss of consciousness. Other symptoms include diarrhea and choking spells in infants. The cough comes in three stages. The first stage is when the cough gradually becomes more severe. After about two weeks, the second stage begins. It is during the second state that the “whooping” cough usually is suspected. In the third state of the cough is the stage where recovery is gradual. The cough becomes less paroxysmal and usually disappears over a few weeks.
What causes this disease? The “Whooping” cough is caused by bacteria called Bordatella pertussis. B. Pertussis causes its most severe symptoms by attaching itself to those cells in the respiratory tract. “Whooping" cough is caught by being coughed on by someone with the infection, who often does not know they are infected. If everyone has been immunized there is very little whooping cough around, but if immunization levels are low then there is a high risk of catching the infection. Most babies catch whooping cough from a school-aged child, often a brother or sister, but adults can catch pertussis and infect babies, children and other adults. “Whooping” cough is spread by contact with droplets coughed out by someone with the disease or by contact with recently contaminated hard surfaces upon which the droplets landed. The most contagious time is during the first stage of the illness.
Treatment: Because younger children are at higher risk to develop a severe case of whooping cough than adults, most are admitted to the hospital. If not admitted to a hospital treatment includes isolating the patient until he or she has received five days of antibiotics. “Whooping” cough bacteria can be transmitted through contact with contaminated inanimate objects; be sure to wash hands every chance you can. The patients should drink plenty of fluids, including water, juices, sounds, and eat fruits to prevent dehydration. To decrease the amount of vomiting, the patient should eat small, having frequent meals. Only use medications instructed by your doctor. Use a cool mist vaporizer to help loosen secretions and sooth the cough. Monitor a sick child for signs of dehydration. If there is any sign of dehydration such as dry lops and tough, dry skins, or decrease in the amount of urine, contact a doctor immediately.
Works Cited:
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/whooping_cough/page6_em.htm
http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/bacterial_viral/whooping_cough.html
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/whooping_cough/article_em.htm
http://www.pertussis.com/

Emphysema

Emphysema:

Is a disease of the lungs that continues to get worse as time moves forward. Emphysema is known as a obstructive lung disease under the category of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. Emphysema completely destroys lung tissue around the bronchioles along with the alveolar walls which cause these airways to be unable to keep their shape when people breath out or rather exhale.

*Causes:

Emphysema is mostly cause by the continual smoking of cigarettes. Approximately anywhere from 80% to 90% of cases of emphysema is caused by smoking. Industrial pollutants, aerosol sprays, non-tobacco smoke, internal-combustion engine exhaust, and physiological atrophy (which mostly occurs in the elderly called senile emphysema).

On a physical standpoint emphysema can be caused by scarring after some sort of accident that affected the lungs which would cause scar emphysema. Suffocation, whooping cough, labor (child-bearing), and acute bronchopneumonia can also cause emphysema by the rupturing of alveoli. Tuberculosis and Asthma also can cause emphysema by lung overstretching which ultimately damage the elastic fibers of the alveoli walls. Also the genetic disorder -- alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency causes Emphysema.

*Symptoms:

The most common symptom of Emphysema is shortness of breath and wheezing. Other symptoms include chronic bronchitis, asthma, and bronchiectasis. Chronic cough, frequent respiratory infections, reduced appetite, weight loss and fatigue are also symptoms of Emphysema. Other symptoms of emphysema may be skipped breaths, insomnia or frequent nocturnal waking, memory loss, morning headaches, nasal flaring, blurred vision, increased breathing difficulty while lying down, impaired concentration, atypical irritability or loss of temper, excessive daytime sleepiness, and swelling of feet, ankles, or legs.

*Treatment:

There is no possible way to stop Emphysema or reverse the effects of it on the respiratory system. For those who smoke physicians advice the immediate quitting of smoking. There also are techniques for the controlling of coughing to get rid of excess mucus in the lungs that could possibly cause infection. Breathing techniques/exercises, which can help with the strengthening of the muscles that are essential to breathing, along with mild exercise is said to have helped with Emphysema. Some medicines and other therapies used are:

· Bronchodilators: albuterol, Proventil, Ventolin, salmeterol, or ipratropium, Theophylline

*Bronchodilators relax bronchial muscles which allow for the airways to be widened and thus breathing less laborious

· Steroids: Corticosteroids

*Steroids reduce inflammation in lungs

· Antibiotics

*Antibiotics help with shortness of breath

· Oxygen Therapy

*Pure oxygen through tubes through the nose

*Interesting Facts:

*The most interesting thing about Emphysema is it is more likely to occur in males than females the exact cause of this is not discovered yet.

*Men over the age of 65 are rated as having the most cases of Emphysema.

*The fastest rising cause of death in North America is Emphysema.

*Emphysema is given the 15^th place on the list of most chronic diseases that limit activities of an individual.

*Symptoms of Emphysema only start showing after approximately 30% to 50% of lung tissue is destroyed.

Websites Used:

http://www.ehealthmd.com/library/Emphysema/EMP_whatis.html

http://www.niagaracleanair.com/asp/Service.asp?LID=11

http://www.ucsfhealth.org/adult/medical_services/pulmonary/copd/conditions/emphysema/signs.html

http://www.medicinenet.com/emphysema/page2.htm#toce

http://respiratory-lung.health-cares.net/emphysema-symptoms.php

http://www.ucsfhealth.org/adult/medical_services/pulmonary/copd/conditions/emphysema/treatments.html

http://respiratory-lung.health-cares.net/emphysema-causes.php

http://www.emedicinehealth.com/emphysema/article_em.htm

http://www.emedicinehealth.com/emphysema/page2_em.htm#Emphysema%20Causes