Stem Cells

Hi Anatomy Peeps!
As we move forward in our examination of the workings of the human body, we see not only the normal workings of the body, but malfunctions and science's attempt to fix things gone wrong. Stem cell research is one of the current and controversial methods being studied for the treatment and cure of many diseases, such as ALS, diabetes, and Parkinson's, to name a few.

The field is changing rapidly as the technology improves AND the political players shift in and out of office. Therefore, we need to do a little research before we can form an opinion on the concept and its ramifications. In preparation for this, please surf the web and compile answers to the following questions:

-What are stem cells?
-Some stem cells are unipotent, while others are multipotent or pluripotent. What do these descriptions mean?
-Why are embryonic stem cells not considered totipotent?
-What do we mean when we refer to a cell as differentiated?
-What does dedifferentiation mean?
-What does transdifferentiation mean?
-What is meant by stem cell plasticity?
-From which part of the embryo are embryonic stem cell lines derived?
-Where can stem cells be found in an adult mammal?
-What is known about the regulation of stem cells?
-What types of human disorders and diseases might be treatable using stem cells?
-What scientific obstacles still exist in the quest to develop stem-cell based therapies for human diseases?
-Why is the maintenance of a stable karyotype a critical feature for any stem cell line that will be used for therapeutic purposes?
-In what way are the ethical dilemmas associated with the use of embryonic stem cells different than those posed by the use of adult stem cells?
-Could the full range of biomedical benefits be obtained from stem cells without the destruction of embryos?
-Should donors of either eggs or adult stem cells receive financial compensation?

-How supportive of stem cell research is the government? What impact does that support have on programs conducting this research?

A good site to consider is National Institutes of Health website, www.nih.gov. They have a stem cell primer that will address many of these questions with reliable information. Don't hesitate to use other sites, but check to make sure they are reliable!

Compile all of your answers and bring them to class on Monday, at which point I will assign you a position and we will debate the pros and cons of stem cell research.

Happy Science!

Aspergillosis

Aspergillosis Cause/ Overview

It is a disease caused by a common fungus called aspergillus that is found throughout the environment. It is found growing on dead leaves, stored grain, compost piles, or in other decaying vegetation. Most people with healthy immune systems rarely get it. There are many different kinds of aspergillosis. One condition, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis ( ABPA), causes allergic respiratory symptoms, such as wheezing and coughing. Another kind, invasive aspergillosis, invades and damages tissues in the body. Apergilloma is growth of a fungus ball in the lungs. 

Symptoms

There are many different symptoms for the various types of aspergillosis

-wheezing

-coughing

-fever sometime in people with asthma

-allergic sinusitis 

-may cough up bloody mucus

-weight loss

-chest pain

-cough

-shortness of breath

-when it spreads outside the lungs it can affect almost any other organ

Invasive has additional symptoms such as

-bone pain

-blood in urine

-chills

-headaches

-vision problems

-lesions

Treatment

Invasive aspergillosis is a very serious infection, and early treatment is necessary. *Voriconazole is currently first-line treatment for invasive aspergillosis taken orally or through IV. Or other antifingal drugs such as itraconazole, lipid amphotericin formulations, caspofungin, micafungin, and posaconazole. 

Fungus ball

*Usually not treated unless surgery is needed to fix bleeding in lung tissue

ABPA

*Is treated with immunosuppressive drugs like prednisone

Extra

-Most people breathe in Aspergillus spores every day because it is so common. It is probably impossible to completely avoid breathing in some Aspergillus spores. 

-Studies have shown that invasive aspergillosis can occur during building renovation or construction.

Cites

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001326.htm

http://www.cdc.gov/nczved/dfbmd/disease_listing/aspergillosis_gi.html

Silicosis

Overview
*Silicosis is a respiratory disease that is the result of someone breathing in silica dust.

Symptoms
*Chronic cough
*Shortness of breath with exercise
If the disease is acute silicosis then there are some other symptoms as well:
*Cough
*Fever
*Severe breathing difficulty
*Weight loss

Treatment
*The main way to go about treating Silicosis is to ensure that it does not get worse.
1) Remove the source of silica exposure.
2) Limit emposure to irritants. (ex. quit smoking)
3) Treatment to help deal with Silicosis includes, cough medicine, bronchodilators and oxygen if needed.
*Bronchodilators are medications that relax the bronchial muscles. Relaxing these muscles makes the airways larger, allowing air to pass through the lungs easier.
4)People that have Silicosis are at a great risk for developing tuberculosis so routine tuberculosis skin tests would be recommended.
*If positive, anti-TB drugs would be prescribed for treatment.

Causes
1) Simple chronic silicosis - long-term exposure (more then 20 years) to low amounts of silica dust.
2) Accelerate silicosis- occurs after exposure to larger amounts of silica for a shorter time span (5-15 years). Symptoms occure faster.
*Progressice massive fibrosis can occur: caused by severe scarring and destroys normal lung structures.
3) Acute silicosis- short-term exposure to very large amounts of silica. Lungs become inflammed, can fill with fluid and causes low blood oxygen levels.
*Intense exposure to silica can cause diseas within a year but mostly the causes are longer termed exposure.

Extra Stuff
*If in contact with silica wear dust maks and do not smoke.
*If severe damage is done to the lungs it can even lead to respiratory failure.
* Although treatment can be given to help prevent the disease from getting worse and to help deal with the symptoms, Silicosis is really an incurable lung disease. Once the damage is done, it's done.
*Even after exposure to silica dust is stopped, the disease can still get progressively worse.
*Silicosis kills thousands every year.


Websites
1) http://www.thoracic.org/sections/copd/for-patients/what-kind-of-medications-are-there-for-copd/what-are-bronchodilators.html
2) https://www.google.com/health/ref/Silicosis
3) http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs238/en/

CROUP

Overview

Croup is characterized by a loud barking cough due to inflammation around the vocal cords of the larynx and trachea. Croup is found commonly in children between the ages of 6 months to 3 years. The most serious cases can need prescription medicine but most cases can be treated with home remedies. Only lasting for 2-5 days normally it can be said that croup in generally a minor condition.
Causes

1. Different viruses cause Croup, such as parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial or various other respiratory viruses.
2. It’s also been found that bacterial infections can cause croup.
3. Croup can be contracted through the air or on surfaces by infected respiratory droplets.

Symptoms

• Makes noisy, high-pitched breathing sounds when inhaling. In most cases children will breathe faster and need to sit up vertically to breathe better.
• Begins drooling or has difficulty swallowing.
• Seems agitated or extremely irritable from everyday activities
• Struggles to breathe
• Develops blue or grayish skin around the nose, mouth or fingernails
• Has a fever of 103.5 F (39.7 C) or higher

Treatment

1. In most cases, home remedies are sufficient
   a. Breathing in moist air seems to help during a croup attack. Use a humidifier or stem shower
   b. Drinking plenty of fluids
   c. Sleeping near children; monitor symptoms to soothe child
2. Getting a flu shot each year may help your child fight off some of the viruses that can lead to croup.
3. Doctor may prescribe corticosteroids, epinephrine or another medication to open the airways.
4. In server cases children may need to spend time in a hospital receiving humidified oxygen.
   

Extra Stuff

Why is croup reserved for children? As we grow older and are lungs and windpipes mature are bodies can deal with the inflammation around are vocal cords without the effects that young children suffer.

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/croup/DS00312
https://www.google.com/health/ref/Croup
http://children.webmd.com/tc/croup-topic-overview http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000959.htm

Cystic Fibrosis

OVERVIEW:

An inherited disease, cystic fibrosis causes thick, sticky mucus to build up in the digestive tract and lungs. It is a common chronic lung disease in both young adults and children, and can also result in death.


CAUSES:

Cystic fibrosis (referred to as CF) is caused by a defect in the CFTR gene. This gene makes proteins that control salt and water movement both in and out of the cells. The protein does not work correctly in those who have CF, thereby causing thick, sticky mucus and very salty sweat.

Based on the aforementioned, CF is inherited. Each person inherits two CFTR genes (one from each parent). If a person inherits two faulty CFTR genes, he will have CF. On the other hand, if a person inherits one normal and one faulty CFTR gene, he will become a "CF carrier" who can pass on the incorrect CFTR gene on to his children.

If both parents have one normal and one faulty CFTR gene, their children have the following percentages:

-25% chance of inheriting two normal CFTR genes
-50% chance of inheriting one normal and one faulty CFTR gene (thus becoming a carrier)
-25% chance of inheriting two faulty CFTR genes, resulting in CF

SYMPTOMS:

-Viscous and thick secretions of mucus in the lungs
-Numerous and repeated infections
-Recurring pneumonia
-Wheezing
-Bronchitis
-Chronic sinusitis
-Asthma
-Nasal polyps
-Weight loss or abdominall swelling
-Excessive salt in sweat
-Dehydration
-Abdominal pain
-Fatigue
-Enlarged fingertips
-Changes in color and amount of sputum
-Failure to grow (newborns)
-Bulky and greasy stools (newborns)

TREATMENT:

As Cf is a genetic, inherited disease, gene therapy would be the only way to prevent or cure it. Through gene therapy the gene could be either repaired or replaced; however, at present, gene therapy does not exist, although severl drug-based treatments are being researched. Other options include giving a person with CF an active form of the protein in which is missing or a scarcity. This is done by utilizing antibiotic therapy to clear the thick mucus from the lungs. If CF is very advanced in a person, lung transplatation may be necessary.

The treatment of a person largely depends upon where CF is affecting them (either the lungs or digestive tract.)

When CF affects the lungs, it obstructs and causes lung infections. A combination of physical therapy, excercise, and medicines are used in order to reduce or clear the mucus from the lungs. Chest therapy is an option, which consists of bronchial drainage of the mucus from the lungs. It is repeated multiple times over different areas of the chest and lungs to loosen the blockages. Excercise treatment stimulates coughing to clear the mucus and allows for the loosening of it. Medications can be used through aerosolizing or inhaling, and include bronchodilators (widens the breathing tubes), mucolytics (this mucus), and decongestations (reduces swelling of membranes). An aerosolized enzyme that thins mucus by digesting trapped cellular material has been recently approved by the FDA. Lastly, another option is antibiotics; they can be taken orally, in aerosol form, or by injection.

When CF affects the digestive tract, the disease is less serious and more easily managed. Through a balanced, high caloric (low in fat, high in protein) diet, and certain pancreatic enzymes, a person can combat this form of CF. Vitamin supplements such as vitamins A, D, E, and K are encouraged to ensure good nutrition. Enemas and mucolytic agents can also be used as treatments for this version of CF.

RANDOM FACTS:

-One in 2,500 children is born with CF
-There is no way to prevent this disease other than examining family history.

SOURCES:

- www.google.com/health/ref/Cystic+fibrosis
- www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/diseases/cf/cf_causes.html
- cystic-fibrosis-symptom.com/symptoms.htm
- cystic-fibrosis-symptom.com/treatments.htm

Pneumothorax

PNEUMOTHORAX
Pneumothorax is when air or gas collects around the lungs (in the pleural cavity). Pneumothorax is also referred to as a collapsed lung. There are three basic types of pneumothorax: Spontaneous, Tension, and Traumatic. Spontaneous Pneumothorax is an escape of air from the lungs, causing it to collapse. The tension pneumothorax is basically a severe form of the spontaneous pneumothorax and can be life-threatening. Traumatic pneumothorax occurs when the lung is punctured, thus causing the lung to collapse.

SYMPTOMS
-Chest pains (made worse by deep breathing)
-Tension in the chest
-Difficulty breathing
-Accelerated heart rate
-Skin takes a blue tint (caused by lack of oxygen)
-Low blood pressure
-Nasal (nostril) flaring. This is caused by the shortness of breath.
-Coughing

TREATMENT
If it is not too severe, the psneumothorax may disappear on it own.
If the pneumothorax is more severe, a small surgery must performed. The procedure involves a small tube that is stuck in between the lungs into the pleural cavity, and through the said tube the air is drained out of the cavity so that the lung may re-expand.
Some other patients need lung surgery. In these cases, the area which was punctured or wounded is repaired, and chemicals are used to cause scarring.


CAUSES
Pneumothoraces can occur for several reasons. Below are listed a few of the causes.
One huge (and obvious) reason is chest trauma. There are two basic types of trauma: penetrating and blunt. Penetrating is when something (kinfe, bullet, etc.) actually trespasses the thoracic cavity and enters the lung. Blunt traumatic injuries, however, are caused by a severe blow. These usually occur in motor vehicle accidents-- like when a person smashes their chest into the steering wheel.
Also, some diseases increase the chance of a person acquiring this condition. Some of those diseases include: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, cystic fibrosis, tuberculosis, or whooping cough.
Tall, thin people are more receptive to pneumothoraces.
Spontaneous pneumothoraces are thought to occur for various reasons; among those is the bleb. A bleb is a small blister on the lung that may rupture due to pressure on the lungs. These are caused by weakness in the lung tissue when a person participates in activities or is exposed to situations in which there are great changes in air pressure (scuba diving, flying, mountain climbing, etc.). It is also believed that genetics may play a role in the development of a pneumothorax.
A second type of spontaneous pneumothorax may occur (secondary spontaneous pneumothorax). This one is caused by a disease (such as tuberculosis or cystic fibrosis). Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs because the diseased lung tissue is next to the pleural cavity.
Traumatic pneumothorax is basically the result of a sharp blow to the chest, or a puncturing of the lung (with a knife, bullet, or any penetrating object for that matter).
Tension pneumothorax is the most dangerous. This one occurs when the pressure in the pleural cavity is greater than the atmospheric pressure.


http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000087.htm
https://www.google.com/health/ref/Pneumothorax
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pneumothorax/DS00943
http://www.pneumothorax.org/
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/emergencies_first_aid/54354

Bronchitis

In a nutshell:

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the air passages within the lungs. It occurs when the trachea and large and small bronchi are inflamed due to infection or other causes. The thin mucous linings for these airways can become irritated, and secrete fluids in response to the inflammation. Coughing is the natural reflex that tries to remove the fluid from the lungs.

Causes:

1. Different viruses can cause Bronchitis, such as Influenza A and B.
2. Certain bacteria can also cause Bronchitis, like Mycoplasma pneumoniae. (same bacteria that causes "walking pneumonia"
3. Irritation of the airways can also be due to fumes and dust (e.g. Cigarette Smoke)

Symptoms:

1. Coughing (may be dry or produce phlegm.) Cough may last up for more than 2 weeks. It may be severe enough to injure chest wall or cause fainting
2. Significant amounts of phlegm may mean that lower respiratory tract and lung are infected as well. You may also have Pneumonia
3. Wheezing due to inflammation of the airways. May lead to shortage of breath.

Treatment:

1. Most cases of Bronchitis are cause by viral infection, and therefore can be treated with antibiotics. However, experts are pushing for doctors to go easy on prescribing antibiotics, because they believe it will help the bacteria become immune.
2. Acetaminophen, aspirin, and ibuprofen can be taken to reduce fever and muscle aches.
3. Staying hydrated makes fluid in the lungs thinner and easier to clear.
4. Humidifiers will help lessen bronchial irritation.
5. Over-the-counter cough suppressants may be taken to alleviate coughing.

Extra Stuff:

http://www.emedicinehealth.com/slideshow_bronchitis/article_em.htm

Check out the above website. It's got a nice slide show with tons of info and visuals on Bronchitis.

website used: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/bronchitis/article_em.htm